Folklore Afr ica 
nancy berner  
Imagine it is t w i l i g h t ,  t h e  work o f  t h e  day is  accomplished, t h e  
comfort o f  the  f i r e l i g h t  i s  drawing you c lose r  t o  enjoy each o t h e r ' s  
company with a  cup of  palm wine. I t  i s  a  time of  r e l axa t ion  a f t e r  
the evening meal. Children amuse each o the r  with guessing r i d d l e s ,  
gradual ly t h e  f r i end ly  c h a t t e r  subsides when you hea r  me say ,  "A 
s t o r y  f o r  you". 
The Hyena and t h e  Dead Ass 
The hyena once had t h e  luck t o  come upon a  dead a s s .  
There was enough meat f o r  t h ree  whole days. I-Ie f e l l  
t o  with a  w i l l  and was busy enjoying h i s  meal when 
suddenly he saw h i s  ch i ld ren  coming. lie knew t h e i r  
hea l thy  young t e e t h  and growing a p p e t i t e s ,  and as he 
did not  want t o  sha re  t h e  magnificent carcass  with 
them, he s a i d :  
"You see  t h a t  v i l l a g e  over  there?  I f  you're quick 
you' 11 f i n d  p l en ty  o f  asses  t he re ,  j u s t  l i k e  t h i s  
one. Only run .I1 
The hyena's ch i ld ren  rushed toward t h e  v i l l a g e ,  
shout ing t h e  good news a t  t h e  tops  of  t h e i r  voices .  
And as the  t a l e  t r a v e l l e d  t o  a l l  corners o f  t h e  bush, 
s t a r v i n g  animals c r ep t  out  - jackals  , c ive t - ca t s  , 
t i g e r - c a t s ,  a l l  t h e  smal le r  wild animals - and ran 
toward the  v i l l a g e  where a  f e a s t  of asses  ' meat 
w a s  t o  be found. 
The whole morning the  hyena watched them go by, 
s i n g l y  o r  i n  f l ocks ,  u n t i l  i n  t he  end Ile began t o  
b c  worried. 
Well, he s a i d  t o  himself ,  it looks as  i f  it must b e  
t r u e .  That v i l l a g e  must b e  f u l l  of dead a s ses .  
And leaving the  carcass  he had a l l  t o  himself ,  h e  
s t a r t e d  off t o  j o i n  a  band of  o the r  animals who were 
running toward the  v i l l a g e .  (Gu i l lo t ,  1966, pp. 88-89) 
Nancy Berner i s  an undergraduate major i n  anthropology 
a t  Wichita S ta te  Universi ty ,  
What you have just heard is an example of a West African folk-
 tale. It is a short story showing exaggeration as an art in which
 onc of the favorite characters, the stupid Hyena, is shown.
 TIle intent and purpose of this paper is to discuss folklore and
 its appearance in various tribes in western, central, eastern, and
 south-eastern Africa.
 Folklore is the common orally transmitted traditions, myths,
 festivals, songs, superstitions and stories of all peoples. The
 term was first used by William J. Thoms in 1846. The three major
 folklore areas of the world are: 1) Africa, Europe and Asia;
 2) South and North America; and 3) the South Sea region. Each of these
 areas has considerable folklore unity. ~'ost folklore consists of
 survivals which continue to have functional value. Sir Lawrence
 Gomme (1853 - 1916) tried to make the study of folklore scientific and
 emphasized the historical, ethnological and socialogical components.
 Folklore has come to mean all kinds of oral artistic expression. It
 may be found in societies that have no writing and it may be found
 unwritten in a literate society. Originally folklore was the study
 of the curiosities of culture, but gradually it became specialized as
 tile study of popular literary activities. (Winick, 1968, p. 217)
 Today, anthropological folklorists are more interested in
 improving methods of reporting and analysis than trying to advance
 theories. TIley find it quite sufficient to say a number of significant,
 though unsystematized, ulings about myths and tales. They show little
 preoccupation with plot, slight concern with the reconstruction of
 original localities and little interest in migration patterns of
 motifs. There is even repugnance for statements about ritual-to-myth
and archetypal origins. Anthropological folklorists do not display
 any advanced ideas of a system of scientific theory about oral
 expressi ve behavior. However they do believe it is now necessary
 to study all aspects of expressive oral literature. (Jacobs. 1966.
 Foreward)
 Folklore. as presented here. is an oral form of Ii terature.
 The demand for entertainment during the long dark hours. devoid of
 modern conveniences such as television or theaters make story-telling
 an attractive and popular pastime. The environment in which tales
 are told is just as important as the tale itself. This environment
 includes the story-teller. the audience. the temperature. the time
 of ~ay and the season. All are an integral part of folklore in
 Africa. It should be remembered that there is no right or wrong way.
 in most instances. of telling a story. It depends on the mood of
 the narrator. the participation of the auciience and the occasion of
 the story. There is always a dramatic quality in the story-telling
 sessions whicll is probably due to the fact that they are generally
 told at night. Origins are unimportant in the context of this paper.
 There are different foms of folklore which wi11 be briefly
 discussed. In many instances there is no clear distinction as to
 placing a tale under a particular category. because many if not all
 stories include aspects of more than one type. Stith Thompson. a
 folklorist, not an anthropologist, has written a monumental
 reference work setting forward the basic elements of folk narratives
 of all kinds. (Thompson, 1964) Although in direct contrast to the
 present anthropological folklorist as pointed out before by Mellvile
 Jacobs, Malefijt believes cataloging is a necessary prequisite to
any systematic study. (Halefijt, p. 172) The types of folklore under
 evaluation here are as follows:
 1. Animal-Trickster tale 1bese are probably the most popular
 in Africa. There is always a small animal of high intelligence and
 cunning, quite unscrupulous, Witll great cupidity and gross appetite.
 He victimizes a series of fellow creatures, generally one animal that
 is his particular prey. He is inevi tab ly larger and stronger than
 the trickster, always dull-witted, often earnest and hard working.
 People respond easily to trickster's suave arguments and alluring
 promises. The trickster is not always depicted as besting an
 intended victim. On occasion he loses and is shown as anything but
 clever. (Herskovits, p. 449)
 llerskovi ts believes there is an element of psychological and
 sociologic significance to be found in the size of trickster who must
 employ his ingueni ty to best his more powerful adversary. TIlis may
 be regarded as a "reflection of African thinking in approaching the
 day to day situations a human being must meet and resolve."
 (Herskovi ts, p. 450)
 2. Fairy-tale TIlis is defined as a longer narrative, serious
 in general, but by no means excluding humor, centering on one hero
 or heroine, usually poor and destitute at the beginning who, after
 a series of adventures in \'lhich the supernatural element plays a
 conspicious part; attains his or her goal. It is essentially
 melodramatic in tone and character. There is usually a helper or
 t\'lO for the hero and a vilHan or vi l1ians. Generally the hero
 possesses whatever virtues one may wish for and no mention is made
 of possible flaws. There is no evolution of cllaracter discernable
in most fairy-tales; the hero is supremely good or clever throughout
 the story. TIle virtues are always courage, cleverness, presence of
 mind, generosity, willingness to listen to good advice, kindliness
 and commondecency. TIle helper to succeed in the hero's task is
 important in the story. He can be an animal or person, often with
 supernatural powers. Sometimes help is given the hero involuntari ly
 such as by overhearing animal talk, or through inanimate objects such
 as trees, magic rings, a cloak of invisibility, or an ine~laustible
 money bag. TIle villian can be near the hero, SUcll as relatives, or
 unconnected with him until his tasks bring him in contact, such as
 giants, dragons, ogres, witcl~s, socerer~ or magicians.
 There are usually a set of tasks, often three, that the hero must
 overcome to win the reward, which is always something concrete; a
 treasure, long life, or the ideal woman. The number two or three
 prevai Is throughout the story not only to the characters but also
 the incidents Witll a gradual intensification of action. The third is
 the most dangerous, most valuab Ie, prettiest, youngest, etc. There
 is generally an absence of death except for the vi IIi an and the
 ending is inevitably happy and successful for the hero. (Krappe,
 PI'. 1-32)
 3. Myths These stories are intimately connected with re Iigious
 beliefs and practices of a people. They tell of sacred beings, of
 semi-devine heroes and of the origins of all things, usually through
 the agency of these sacred beings. (1hompson, p. 9) They appear in
 the form of a narrative \'lith a plot; often \-lith style and beauty. As
 a cultural ins ti tution the)' have ps)'chologi cal and sod al functions
 and meanings as \vell as religious overtones. (1'lalefijt, p. 172)
4. Fab les Fables are a high ly deve loped Iiterary fom in
 certain cultures of Negro Africa. TIley are short stories in which
 the protagonists are talking animals with both human and animal
 traits. TIley always state or suggest a moral (Winick, p. 200)
 Fables are derived from the animal tale and know only one philosophy-
 common sense. (Krappe, p. 66)
 S. Legends Tales that are attached to a definite locality,
 and therefore are fixed in place if not in time, for they do not
 migrate. Local legends are tied to the landscape in whi ch they
 arise, usually to explain some uncommon feature of that landscape.
 TIley are generally brief and even where historical events are at the
 bottom of a given tradition, they only preserve the kernal of a
 happening. TIley can be the result of dream experiences or spiritual
 illusions. TIley have an episodical structure and can be melodramatic
 without happy endings. (Krappe, pp. 70, 79, 84) (TIlompson,p. 8)
 6. Explanatory and Pourquoi stories TIlese are stori.es
 explaining the origins and characteristics of various animals, plants,
 or natural phenomena. (TIwmpson, p. 8) (Walker, p. 83) TIlese are
 often for children and frequently the explanation seems to be the
 entire reason for the existence of the story. Animals often play the
 main roles. TIley are generally short and the numbers of motives
 few. (Krappe, p. 60) A motif or motive may be thought of as the
 smallest divisible unit of a tale. (Nalefijt, p. 172)
 7. Proverbs Proverbs represent, in their essential fom, some
 homey truth expressed in a concise and terse manner. (Krappe, p. 143)
 TIlere are many occasions where the proverb is used, but it plays
 a particular role in law courts much as we cite
 4. Fables Fables are a highly developed Ii terary fom in
 certain cultures of Negro Africa. TIley are short stories in which
 the protagonists are talking animals with both human and animal
 traits. TIley always state or suggest a moral (Winick, p. 200)
 Fables are derived from the animal tale and kno only one philosophy 
common sense. (Krappe, p. 66)
 S. Legends Tales that ar attache t a definite locality,
 and therefor are fixed in plac not i time, for the not
 migrate. Local legend are tied to th land cap whi they
 arise, usually to explai som uncommo featur f that landscape.
 TIley are generall brie an eve wher historical events ar at the
 bottom of a give tradition, the onl preserve th kernal f a
 happening TIley can b the resul drea experiences r spiritual
 illusions TIley hav an episodical structur an ca e melodramatic
 withou happy endings (Krappe pp. 70 79, 84 (TIlornpson, . 8)
 6. Explanator an Pourquoi storie TIlese ar stori.e
 explainin the origin and characteristics f various animals, plants,
 or natural phenomena. (TIwmpson, . ) (Walker, . 83) TIles are
 often for childre and frequentl the explanation seems t be the
 entire reason for the existence f the story. Animals often play the
 main roles. They are generally short and the numbers of motives
 few. (Krappe, p. 60) A motif or motive may be thought of as the
 smallest divisible unit of a tale. (Halefijt, p. 172)
 7. Proverbs Proverbs represent, in their essential form, some
 homey truth expressed in a concise and terse manner. (Krappe, p. 143)
 TIlere are many occasions where the proverb is used, but it plays
 a particular role in law courts much as we cite
precedents. (lierskovits, 1958, p. 57) "It is used with great effec-
 tiveness as an instrument in achieving the paradox of plain spew,ing
 through induction. It is used to warn, admonish, reprove, guide,
 praise and encourage. It reflects the deepest-set values of a
 people, showing the drives that motivate behavi or and the controls
 that regularize the relations of an individual to his fellows."
 (llerskovits, p. 451)
 8. Riddles These are usually limited to cllildren who are en-
 couraged to learn them to sharpen their wits. Theyti,reordinari ly
 presented in the form of a statement rather than a question.
 (llerskovits, p. 453)
 9. Merry Tales or Anecdotes TIlese are short narratives in
 prose or verse, relating a episodical event or series of events cul-
 minating in a humorous situation. (Krappe, p. 45) Herry tales depict
 ordinary human life. TIley epxress elementary simplicity and extreme
 realism, and have a wider appeal than fairy-stories. TIle chief
 cllaracteristics of a merry tale are 1) it is episodical, 2) it is
 humorous, 3) the supernatural, if occurring at all, is quite
 negligible and in no way affects its essential qualities, 4) the
 cllaracters are everyday people facing everyday problems and temptations
 and 5) wit and satire are important, often making certain trades the
 object of satirical attacks. They are often disgusting but not immoral.
 10. Ogres, Giants, and Demons TIlese characters often appear in
 connecti on with other mentioned types. but occasionally are put in
 separate catagories.
\./
 lioith the fotmuation thus laid, we are now ready to examine some
 -8-
 \./
 hOi th the fOtmdation thus laid, we are now ready to examine some
 specific African tribes and their individual folklore. \'!e will look
 at the individual types of folklore appearing in each, the relative
 importance of the tale-teller, the setting and the unique character-
 is tics of the culture that affect their folklore where it is
 presented. Sornetines what is deliherately omi tted from the folktales
 is just as important as I.,'hat is included and this will be mentioned
 whenever possihle. We will begin in West Africa, proceed to central,
 then eastern, and finally to Southeastern Africa.
 TIle Afikpo Ibos, of the thickly popul ated farming area of
 Southeastern Nigeria, have tales, proverbs and riddles that make up
 their folklore. They do not have a mythology explaining the nature
 of the universe and the creation of man, or poetry per se. There
 are two principal types of tales. The historic tales deal with the
 origins and development of the villages, compounds, and lineages;
 and fairy-tales which hav~ as their characters humans, animals and
 objects of nature SUdl as the sun, moon, river, etc. Proverbs are
 uti Ii zed as phi losophical comments on li fo, to instruct children 01'
 to warn adults against foolish behavior. They also are expressions
 of group solidari ty.
 Riddles are employed mainly for recreation. They appear in the
 fonn of a talc, in a simple question, and as paired proverbs having
 the sar.lc meaning. In this latter t)'Tle the first proverh is stated,
 and the reply is the second.
 example; "Soup in a flat plate cannot be licked."
 "A white man's work is never done." (Ottenberg, 1965, p.34)
Hoving frow the Afikpo to the YorulJa, it is learned that folk-
 tales were the only Deans of transnittinr. the culture fron renerntion
 to generation. Oral traditions of beliefs, mores, social atti tudes
 related by the folktales have not lost their ir:lportancc even \.;itll
 the coming of the British. (Walker, 1961, p. 1) The story-tpllin!'
 sessions are for the leisure after-dinner hours. TIley are dranatic
 and musical perfon:lances as well as oral ones. The narrators identify
 ther:lselves conpletely \vi th the characters of their tales. They use
 appropriate movements and gestures when necessary to illustrate a
 point. llusical effect is both haunting and curious ly appropriate to
 the mood and content of the tales. (Walker, p. 4) The audience often
 participates in the story-telling; they may sing the choruses, beat
 drums or other instruments to heighten the effect. TIley will even
 cheer at the conclusion of a particularly good rendi tion of a favorite
 story .
 Nigerian folktales are divided into tales of clenon lovers,
 pourquoi stories, noral fables, trickster tales and tales that deal
 \Vith ferti Ii ty. TIle theme of mixed marri ages bct,,,een T10rtals and
 other wordly creatures of different kinds are seen in the demon lover
 stories. The nonmortal mates are often associated \Vith the animal
 ·kingdom. TIwse are tales of enchantment "here time often has a
 special dinension. (!'lalker, p. 79)
 TIle pourquoi stories illustrate folk efforts to explain to
 thelilselves the nature of their physical \wrld. They seem intended
 primarily for children, but could also cOllleclose to myths. "i:hy
 the Tortoise's Shell is Cracked and Crooked", "1':hy the Fox chases
 the Cock", "Hhy the Sky is So Far Away", "1111ythe Bat Cones Out
Only at Night", are only several of the stories in this category.
 Cannibalism during time of famine in the distant past is re-
 flected in animal allegory. (Walker, p. 86) Twins are a justifi-
 cation for traditional reverence and appear in many Yoruba stories,
 but other Nigerian tribes abhor them. (Walker, p. 88) The moralizing
 tendency is so strong in some fables, they seem to exist solely for
 that reason, but others exist for other reasons. They are all brief
 and direct. Tortoise in Nigeria usually assumes the role of thinker
 whether he wins or loses. From tribe to tribe various animals take
 precedence for cunning and wisdom. The hare in Southeastern Africa.
 tilespider along the Ivory and Gold Coasts and the Jackal among the
 Hot;tentots. Some of the fables are primarily instructive and show
 that if a warning is ignored, it can be fatal. (Walker, p. 93)
 In the Yoruba trickster tales, the trickster appears as a wily
 and respected planner; a rascal who preys on others and lives by his
 wits; sometimes he is a simple ordinary person who exploits the
 opportuni ties that come his way. Humor and satire are always apparent
 in these stories. (Walker, p. 99) Escapades of trickster entertain
 as much as they teach.
 TIle tales of fertility like those of demon lovers, have only one
 themc. Among the Yorubas the desire for children is particularly
 strong and fertility is the key to social status. both within the
 fronily and the community. There seems to be a very high infant
 mortali ty rate. 111Cy often get so carried away with the preoccupation
 of ferti Iity in their tales that even men become pregnant. (Walker. p. 8)
 The Limba. who Iive in the upland rice farming area of Sierra
 Leone also possess a great deal of unwritten literature. Their
stories are part of that oral literature, as are their riddles,
 proverbs, occasional historical narratives, and songs that frequently
 occur in Ule stories. During long evening sessions these stories are
 told, usually by men around a fire witil vivid gestures and dramatic
 effects that are admired and echoed by the fasinated audience. In
 practically all Limba stories there is some element of amusement.
 Riddles are proposed and songs are sung in the same environment.
 Proverbs and parables sometime enrich the language of the more noted
 elders, for these are often used to make a point in some legal
 discussion. Much of the Limba life is saturated by what is in its
 own way a literature. (Finnegan, 1967, Preface)
 Again each narration is a dramatic performance, depending for
 its effect not only on the excellence of the narrator's composition,
 but equally on the details of his delivery which means the gestures he
 uses, and the active participation of the audience. The subtlety of
 Uleir story-telling is almost wholly lost when it is read away from
 the area. So from one point of view the stories of animals or people
 are only simple stories that are short and uncomplicated, but it is
 the live performance that give them meaning. Story-telling therefore
 is a living art, and each narration of the same story even by the
 same person can be different and tmique. The story-teller is the
 central character who shapes and orders the themes and gives the
 effecti veness to the enactment of the plot.
 The Limba are rice farmers residing in vi 11ages where their social
 life is centered. Even though young men go to Freetown for work and
 wages, they return to add new interest and themes to the traditional
 ones. Some of these vi 11ages are high in the hi lIs and are reached
by narrow winding paths. The women travel up to the villages many
 times a day carrying their water containers on their heads. Their
 stories make many references to the cultivation, preparation, cooking,
 and eating of rice, and add an extra dimension to their whole
 narrative. (Finnegan, p. 7)
 Chiefship is an important institution and a frequent subject in
 their literature where winning a chiefship is the conclusion and
 climax to a story. The exaggerated picture of a chief reflects the
 common tendency to exaggerate riches. (Finnegan, p. 10)
 The method of wooing a wife is one of the most crucial endeavors
 in any man's life, and it is not surprising many stories reflect this.
 (Finnegan, p. 16) Relations between husbands and wives are the
 frequent object ~~ direct or allusive comment in their literature.
 Many tales about the greedy anti-social spider and his wife Kayi deal
 with tilis subject, tile spider is constantly trying to get the better
 of his wife. The view of women as independent or treacherous in
 their role as wives is also a common theme in the stories. The wife
 who tricks her husband for love of another man is one of the
 conventional motifs. (Finnegan, pp. 16-17)
 Like many West African people, the Limba assume the existence of
 a single High God. At the same time they lay emphasis on the power
 of their dead ancestors. Kanu, as they call God, frequently appears
 as one of the characters of their stories. Kanu, as a remote all
 powerful and W1knowable being, is not at all the way he is shown in
 the literature. In the stories, Kanu is a kindly father, or a
 seeker of palm wine, or a chief of a magical land. Reference to
 the dead are most infrequent in the literature, yet in everyday
existence they are of central importance. (Finnegan, p. 20)
 The most common folklore are tales about Kanu, twins, heroes
 and animals, mainly spider. Horals are not an integral feature of
 tile stories, but merely o~e of several stylistic devices used to
 bring them to a fitting conclusion. (Finnegan, p. 29)
 Stories of people and heroes offer the greatest range for
 innovation and variation by individual story-tellers. One of the
 most common figures here is that of the hunter. He is given special
 powers for it takes a long time to train to be proficient. He is an
 important, if somewhat mysterious, person in reality as in the
 stories. Twins are frequently the central characters, and are
 commonly believed to also possess special powers. They are always
 shown as acting together and helping each other. (Finnegan, p. 33)
 Limba tales cannot be classified as myths for they do not form
 any systematic theology, philosophy or mythology. Stories of origins
 are not taken seriously when they do appear. Even Kanu stories are
 light, not told at prescribed occasions or are in any way associated
 with a ritual. 'What is often described in Kanu or origin stories
 is a detached generalization about the relation and purposes of
 present human society.
 Animal stories are the most popular, marked by humor and sometimes
 obsenity. The most common character is Spider, who is depicted as
 stupid, gluttonous, selfish and irresponsible, consistently outdone
 by his wife. The relation between him and his wife represent every-
 thing that is wrong or opposite in reality. Occasionally Spider is
 the cunning trickster who outwits larger animals. There are a few
 other animals with stock characteristics; the antelope, small, shy,
very clever; the goat, also clever; the leopard, dangerous, un-
 scrupulous, full of deceit; the squirrel, clever, who comes to help
 larger aninals; the finch, who appears in the role of diviner; and
 dogs, closely attached to hUI:lans. ~lost animal stories allude to a
 moral or are of the explanatory type, and do not seem to he taken
 too seriously. Riddles are often asked by children. Some analogy
 of sound, nature, or situation is usually sugr:ested \Alhichmust be
 correctly identified. (Pi nnegan, p. 40) Proverbs are frequently
 used in the context of persuasion in court.
 The tales do not treat such subjects as wars, sieges, great
 historical changes or long-drawn out events. The tales are short and
 siT:lpIe, with brief action, simple plot and li ttle characteri zation.
 TIle topics most used are that of marriage or love, family
 re lationships, position and fortunes of orphans, friendship and
 cooperation, chiefship, rice, food and eating. Greed for meat is
 found as an especially funny topic. (Finnegan, pp. 46-60)
 The Dohor.1cansshO\'Jmany simi lari ties to the Afikpo, lJUt "offer
 a striking eXaT:lpleof hm" each society Dust be studied in terms of
 its own particular orientation;". (Ilcrskovi ts, 1958, p. 14) They
 have two categories of folklore; history, or ancient lore which are
 true stories, and tales, which are about things that never existed.
 To a Dohor.Jean, life is based on history. Under the history category
 there are: 1) myths, conprising stories of the dieti es and the
 creation of the \vcrld and its people; 2) clan myth-chronicles, which
 tell origins of families or clans and their adventures including
 explanations of ritual behavior, food taboos and positive sanction;
 and 3) verse sequences, which usually are sung and composed by
professional verse-makers for the purpose of memorizing geneologi es
 and events that have been incorporated into ritual or law.
 0~rskovits, 1958, p. 17)
 Tales are classified as: 1) divination tales; 2) hunter stories;
 3) enfant terrible stories; 4) "Yo" stories; 5) tales of wonen;
 6) explanatory and moralizing tales; and 7) transformation tales.
 Here again the narrator is all important. He sets the stage of
 characters and the task be fore th em; the end of th c tal e des cri bes it.
 r.loralizing tales are always omitted from funeral sites, for they
 believe only a fool would moralize the dead. (I!erskovits, 1958, p. 25)
 In the divination stories it is tradition that all of them come
 from Fa, the personified system of divination. "'Dlere is sym-
 bolically an interesting tradition about the vast nunber of myths
 and tales that are told. It is said that each distinctive tale rep-
 resents a year of hunan existence on earth, and only after all the
 stories that can be used for Fa divination are exhausted will the world
 come to an end." (lierskovits, 1958, p. 26)
 Hunter is similar to the Limba interpretation. He has knolVledge
 of magic, spiritual helpers, and extends frontiers of the ,;orld by
 bringing back knowledge of herbs. lie is also a. scout during wartime.
 0Ierskovi ts, 1958, p. 28)
 Enfant terriLJle stories have to do with actions of superior
 people, \d th knO\dedge of the supernatural who often avenge wrongs
 done to then. Twins and orphan stories are commonin this group.
 "Yo" is the protagonist of the humorous tale. lie syr.Jbolizes the
 ir,1pulsivc, gross, greedy and gluttonous. He is ah,ays laughed at,
 but never despised as is lIyena. The theme in these tales is usually
his insatiable appetite, but also of hunger anxiety which is often
 prevalent in Dohomeanreality. The stories of womenstress plot and
 moral. Tales of the loyali ty of friends or the opposite bring
 emotional satisfaction. Jealousy, fraternal rivalry, hypocracy and
 intrigue, faithlessness of women, and love are other frequent themes.
 Stories of Legba, the trickster-diety, are very common. He may be
 thought of as the one who "loves mischief, knows no inhibitions,
 recognizes no taboos and dares to challenge injustices." (Herskovits,
 1958, p. 36) It is perhaps the trai t of not being cowed by those in
 power that endears Legba to all Dohomeans. Very rarely is he duped.
 Riddles play an important part in the folklore. TIle people
 especially enjoy the play on words that are so importwlt in everyday
 communication. One form of the riddle, called conundrum, is
 attributed to professional story-tellers, and can be very long.
 Wagers were once made at the king's courts on the outcome of guessing
 contests. A period of riddling precedes all story-telling and has
 the special function of a memory device for children. It is
 characterized by exaggeration and by reference to the grotesque, the
 incongrous and the forbidden. (llerskovi ts, 1958, p. 55) Proverbs
 phrase the philosophy of the Dohomeans and are never used by
 cllildren to press a point.
 Again and again the stories stress the idea that one must be
 discrete at all times, and not overbearing even if one has many
 possessions. Social conformity is a central theme and insights into
 the political order and structure of power can be seen. (Herskovi ts,
 1958, p. 79)
 TIle lIausa have a picturesque legend of their origin. It relates
how the prince of Bafhdad made his way to Daura, slew the monstrous
 snake which lived in the well and terrorized the townsfolk. He was
 rewarded for this deed by being made the consort of the queen.
 Their children and grandchildren became the founders of the seven
 Ilausa states. It is possib Ie this legend shows the peaceful union
 of inunigrant peoples and the indiginous tribe. The folklore seems
 to belong to two different periods of history, that before 1500,
 and that after 1500. TIle animal and fairy tales of the early period
 were simple and relatively unsophisticated, but it is to the latter
 period that the fiction, proverbs and historical legends belong.
 It is the peasant class and their tastes that reflect in the
 stories of wonder, surnrise, tension, dilemma, violence, and humor.
 (Johnston, p. 30)
 TIle oral literature of the professional story-tellers possess
 a residule streak of cruelty, especially in the early tales which
 are often harsh and bloody. This is replaced in the later tales by
 modified callousness and a macabre type of humor. Much of this
 humor is based on the discomfort of the great ones on the earth such
 as the lion. He is pictured as full of power and dignity as he is
 empty of wit and imagination.
 There are stories describing events that are factual. Others,
 such as the animal and fairy tales, are probab ly as old as the
 language itself. The folklore is divided into animal stories, fairy-
 tales, proverbs, historical legends, true stories, and fiction.
 The social motives in some Hausa stories are obvious while others
 are strictly for entertainment. Amongtraditional stories, a
 munber deal with witchcraft but they do not necessari ly reflect what
the lIausa believe.
 Story-telling is a dramatic form of oral expression. The
 narrator creates the atmosphere b)' his mimicry, gestures, accents,
 and tone of voice. There is no such thing as an authentic version
 of a folktale. As we have seen before, each time a version is told it
 is somewhat different.
 Anioal stories are the most popular. The animal hierarchy lends
 itself very easily to two of the most popular themes; the triumph of
 brains over bra"m, and the discomfort of the mighty ones. There
 seems to be no evidence of totemism among the Hausa. The spider, hare
 and jackal all appear in Hausa tales, but they have given each specific
 qualities. The spider. is unscrupulous and vindictive, the hare gay
 and mischievous and the jackal cunning and sagacious. The villain
 is usually the Hyena who is shO\·mas greedy and stupid, overbearing
 to inferiors, and servi Ie to his superiors. lIe always loses in his
 duels with trickster.
 The fairy-tales feature supenlatural creatures in the form of
 witclles, wizards, familiar spirits that haunt trees, and ogres who
 are the most interesting. Hany are simi lar to European versions.
 TIle supernatural creatures are capab Ie of assuming other shapes and
 forms, and even people and animals can change their shape in these
 stories.
 The legends are concerned with the deeds of heroes during the
 wars between the Fulani and the Hausa. TIleir true stories deal with
 the topic of African slavery. It is a realistic acceptance of
 the subject, for their attitude is detached and curiously free of
 emotion. liThe Hausa have a strong sense of history and drama.
Judged as a primitive art. as the majority should be. they reveal
 tmusual merit." (Johnston. Introduction. p. 50)
 The Bulu live in the tropical rain forests of southeast and
 central Cameroon. They have no tribal tmity at all. The tmity is
 expressed only in loyalty to one's patrilocal village-family. The
 lineage family is also the most important social unit. So strong is
 the idea of village-family togethemess, that everyone outside the
 group is considered an enemy. Not only does the village include the
 recogni zabIe forest vi llage but it also includes the ancestor
 village dwelling which is thought of as being undergrotmd. These
 ancestors are just as real "and figure in their life just as much as
 li ving men. The Bulu men have two li fe goals; to achieve a high
 economic-based status through wealth accUlT1ulation, and to receive
 the same rank in the ancestor village after death that they had at
 death. The family is timeless, the lineage ancestors send a child
 to be born on earth by a chameleon or trap-door spider who brings
 the spirit of the child to the mother. For a son to be disrespectful
 and not want his father's name is a crime almos't too serious to
 behold. It not only threatens the boy but could put an end to the
 family itself. This must be prevented at all possible costs.
 Growing boys find little escape from these traditions. The pressures
 to gain \veal th and status are always present. These pressures are
 built into their folklore and are relieved when wealth suddenly
 and magically appears. Host Bulu folktales have human and animal
 characters. The stories tend to stress tradition. not to offend
 one's father or the ancestors.
 Again night is always the setting for the telling of tales.
Stories teach custons, ethical noms, the goals of the society, how
 to act, and \'Jhat to avoid. Stories use language a Ii ttle more
 flowcry and descriptive than that found in everyday speech. The
 narrator's gestures and movements reflect the changing enotion as
 the story is told. TIle number six is culturally important in their
 stories, for exmnple, to go six rivers away suggests social separation-
 an unthinkable concept. (Borner, p. 145-156)
 In Evans-Pritchard' s collection of Azande tales, he states that
 they are collected to be simply read, without trying to get
 elaborate structural and socialogical interpretation. (Evans-Pri tchard,
 Preface) Their oral literature very seldom refers to their social
 institutions. The plots deal Witll the everyday activities of eating,
 drinking, working, collecting temi tes, hunting animals, fishing,
 gathcring honey, wild fruits, yams, mushrooms, salt making, the
 weaving of barkcloth and the use of magic. What the tales fail to
 mention of the social life they ignore may be just as significant
 as what they include.
 The Zande, who live in the savannah forest in the middle of
 Africa, have a patriarchal society. Wives are considered inferior,
 but this does not mean they are ill-treated or neglected. If this
 becomes the case, life for the husband is made miserable. TIlis is
 illustrated in their tales. (Evans-Pritcllard, p. 5) The importance
 of in-law relations, involving respect, reserve, and tension is also
 evident in tales. The treatment of orphans is also shown.
 CannabaIisn, that is, the eating of enemies ki lled in war or executed
 criminals, occurred in the past and is alluded to in their folklore.
 God is mentioned in the tales, but he has no cult. Oracles are
consulted for manyreasons and magical practices are a frequetlt
 motif of tales. (Evans-Pritchard, p. 11)
 Tales are told in the evening around family fires. It is re-
 larded as improper to tell stories during daylight hours. Usually
 men tell them, but occasionally womenare story-tellers. The
 audience shows its appreciation by its participation while the narrator
 displays mimicry, gestures and changes of voice to relate the drama.
 The hero of their trickster tales is a character namedTure which
 means 'spider'. The Azande therefore belong, in this respect, to
 the West African culture area. Ture is a monster of depravity, a
 liar, a cheat, lecher, murderer; he is vain, greedy, treacherous and
 ungrateful. In fact, t!verything against which Azandewarn their
 children. He is presented with little moralizing, never really
 malicious. There is an almost endearing innocence about him. What
 Ture does is the 0ppos1~e of all that is moral. In reality Azande
 showmanyof Ture's characteristics, that is a tendency to show off,
 a sense of humor, and admiration of slimness.
 It is significant that the authority of kings, so prominent in
 their lives, are not mentioned in the· folklore. Witchcraft is -also
 scarcely mentioned yet it plays a dominant part in rp.ality. The.re is
 no reference JIladein the tales to over 100 years of Arab and European
 occupation, or to their secret societies and initiation rites. It
 could be that these subjects are too close to reality to figure in
 imaginati ve stories which ~ake them into a world of fantasy.
 (Evans-Pritchard, p. 20)
 Tales of Ture are purely fiction and fantasy. There are only
 two.wipely knownstories knownas myths that have been recorded. One
tells how the royal clan originated, the other is the remarl;a1le
 feats perfomed by t"JO witch doctors.
 Another tribe in central Africa that offers a s light contrast
 is the Iladjerai. They live in villages on the sloping platfoms
 around towering Haunt Gera bordering the savannah. Somehm>Jthey have
 managed to ward off newer tribes and preserve their ancient Nays.
 (fuch, Preface) 111ere are clans who assert that they are the
 descendents of a particular animal. (Fuch, p. 12)
 The author who collect_ed these stories, many of '"hich ,,,ere told
 him during daylight hours, got them from womenwho were acclaimed
 as noted story-tellers as well as men. (Fuch, p. 45) During the
 daylight sessions, other womenwould bring something to do whi Ie a
 story was being told. TIle audience would suggest or volunteer more.
 The main figure in the animal stories is the hyena who is
 regarded as ugly, stupitl, and insatiable. lIis rival, the squirrel
 or jackal, is depicted as intelligent, quick-witted and very crafty.
 TIlere are stories of wizards and witches who eat men. It is during
 the night these supernatural creatures turn into hyenas and snakes
 to eat men's souls. (fuch, p. 36) Other themes in the stories deal
 with love, ferti li ty, fai th less wives, and revenge.
 'nle lIadjerai fear hunger above everything else and for that
 reason they have only a fe\\' stories on the subject. TIlis is
 especially so during the rainy season when the fate of the village
 is decided for the whole year. They arc afraid to evcn speaJ; of
 hunger for the spoken wortl might become reality and take effect at
 any moment. (fuch, p. 107)
 God is hlportant in the stories that have been passed on from
generatjon to generation over a period of htmdreds or perhaps
 thousands of years. He is imagined in htunantems. lie lives in
 heaven most of the time, occasionally comes to earth, and is
 sometimes good and sometimes evil. (Fuch, p. 141) Everyone has
 oracles that require prayers and sacrifices of beer, but these are
 seldom mentioned in tlle folklore.
 There are stories of friends that appear many times. Women
 never comebetween the friendships of two men, for it is considered
 too precious for any wise man to let a womanupset it. (Fuch, p. 169)
 Death is a strange and ever present reality to the Hadjerai.
 They believe it is a demonwho kills people by the order of God. It
 is knownfrom .ancient tales that somewherein the wilderness there is
 a village where deaths live. Whenanyone dies a death song is sung
 that goes back to ancient time. Like all their oral literature it
 is passed downby word of mouth.
 The Va.l.ubya t.ribe lies east of Lake Victoria in Kenya. These
 people are quickly being acculturated into western ways through the
 extensive missionary system. f.1anyof the old stories are being
 forgotten as children enter a new way of life. The beauty of the
 stories is in the way they are told aloud before an audience. Here
 again the facial expressions, the abrupt hand movements, "the
 turning aside to spit on the ground when terribly disgusted, and
 the abject fear they knowso well how to picture when they tell of
 the giants plundering and killing." (Hoyt, Notes)
 The stories contain repeating wailing songs and lullabies. The
 giant stories are weird with cruel endings. Cannibalism, practiced
 in surrounding territory, seems to be the reason their belief in
giants and goblins is so prono\D'\ced. There are stories "stressing
 the sacredness of a promise of oath and the terrible power of a
 curse. These all end in a crue1 punishment to the one whohas not
 kept a promise." (Hoyt, Notes)
 There are stories of everyday life, such as famine, greediness,
 how to strike a good bargain or be a good blacksmith . There are
 stories explaining origins and habits of animals and such natural
 events as death. They fear the spirits of the dead and try to
 appease them through sacrifice.
 The giants in the stories take different foms; they are more
 animal than humanoften having several tai ls and multiple mouths
 which suggest their cannibalistic tendencies. They live in a far
 away land not sui table for people and are always the enemies of
 man. Only lightning and th\D'\dercan kill them. Swallowedpeople
 are released by cutting off the dead giant's fingers. They are
 always stupid or dumb.
 Riddles are told mostly for children and proverbs are spoken
 by the elder wise men.
 Folktales of the Thongaof South Africa have literary,
 ethnographic and philosophical value in their life. Stories are
 told at night often at the conclusion of games. Story-telling is
 considered the most refined and pleasing of games, and is strictly
 a night-time occupation. Story-tellers are of all ages and of both
 sexes. Tales are classified as animal trickster tales with the
 Hare as the trickster whooutwits larger animals by his intelligence
 and c\D'\ning. Fairy stories that are similar to our "Cinderella"
 where the despised triumph over the elders whohate them; ogres
tales where triumph of wisdom of feeb Ie creatures over horrib Ie
 cruel monsters is shown; moral tales where just punishment follows
 such faults as curiosity, jealousy, obstinacy, unkindness, disobedience,
 lazyiness, self-confidence, or selfishness. On the other hand kindness
 and pity are rewarded. Actual fact stories, that are told purely
 for entertainment, and foreign tales which have come from Mos lem,
 Portuguese or English sources are also present.
 One tale might easily be placed in two or more categories. The
 animal folklore is generally devoid of moral purpose, but a moral
 idea may be detected in some of the episodes.
 "The Iiterary value varies greatly according to the story itself,
 and to the narrator." .(Junod, p. 214) Tales can be short and
 insignificant or true compositions in which there is order and design.
 Songs may form the framework of a story. Repetition is a favorite
 devise. A narrator's performance adds to the interest of any story.
 These Bantu tales are very old, but the same version is different
 every time it is told.
 The root idea of all their folklore seems to be the triumph of
 wisdom over brute force. Probably because this is a natural and
 satisfying concept.
 Alice Wenler acknowledges many similarities of the Bantu folklore
 of South Africa. The tribes she is speaking of include the Zulus,
 Xosas, Basuto, Bechuana, Thongas, and ~fashona. In general the
 Bantu do not try to account for the origins of the human race; their
 legends seem to assume that the particular tribe is the human race.
 They frequently fail to distinguish beb~een a non-human creator, and
 the firs t human ances tor. (Werner, p. 13) Nearly all Bantu have
the legend of the chameleon to explain how death came into the
 world, or rather why death was not prevented from coming. No
 \Dlsophisticated African will touch a chameleon if he can help it,
 nor do th~y even like to watch a European touch one. (Werner, p. 33.
 The dead are supposed to go on living underground indefinately
 just like they do on earth. There are manystories describing the
 adventures of people whohave accidentally reached this lower country,
 usually by following a burrowing animal into a hole. This idea is
 fO\Dldin stories wherever Bantu is spoken. (Werner, p. 19)
 The idea of one God, as Otiose, is probably believed by all
 Bantu. There are manystories of a heaven CO\Dltrypopulated by
 heaven people. Mortals can reach such a place by a spider web,
 climbing a tree or a rope.
 The dead, which all Bantu honor and recognize, are often depicted
 in their ghost stories. Snakes, lions or birds are frequent medi\Dlls
 for return1ng spirits. The possibility that the dead can even return
 to life is frequently ass\Dlledin folktales.
 They have legends of past great chiefs whose memorylives on
 for generations. Animals can also be culture heroes. In many Bantu
 tribes there is a wonder-chi ld hero. They all have the common
 characteristics of a womanin difficUlty who is helped by an ogre
 demon, or animal after promising to give it her next born child.
 A birth takes place and the child is always precocious. Next the
 child always finds a way to escape the mother's attempt to hand him
 over to the demon; finally the ogre is killed. There are even
 sagas which are a series of legends following the lives and
 adventures of heroes that are probably historical figures. Mythical
elements are incorporated into the legends and stories of Ule
 Liongo in East Central Africa.
 Cannibals appear in many legends, particularly those of the
 Zulu. They are not common men, but are magnified into giants and
 magicians. The ideas here, as elsewhere, probably developed in times
 of famine, and were more of a ceremonial nature. The man-eaters
 eventually fled and the practice died out. (Werner, p. 172)
 Ogre stories are popular and are probably found in all parts
 of the Bantu area. Stories of escape by throwing things which turn
 into a rock, a fire, a forest of knives, a lake or a river are
 familiar. Many tales deal with marriage to such creatures. The
 Hyena, as well as the lion and the leopard, has the ability to
 assume human form at will; sorcerers can assume the fonns of these
 animals. The legend of a monster which swallows the population of
 a village, or whole country and is then slain by a boy hero is
 popular in this area as well as allover Africa. The swallowing
 monster can be an elephant, any female monster, pumpkin or a
 cannible ogre. In ogre tales, a frog or tortoise will often swallow
 children in order to save them from the ogre producing them safe
 and sOtmd at their home later in the story.
 The literature is rich in explanatory tales. Lightning is
 most often conceived of as a bird, or even a particular bird. A
 rainbow is nearly always looked at as a malignant and dangerous
 phenomenon for it is believed that it stops rain - quite enough to
 classify it an enemy. Often it is associated with ant heaps, in
 which it is supposed to live, or snakes. Bagandu call the rainbow
 Musoke, and is thought of as Ule patron of fishermen. They are
the exception.
 The llrer Rabbit stories originally came from Africa by way of
 the Negro slaves who seem mostly to have belonged to Bantu-speaking
 tribes. Every story of "Uncle Remus" can be shown to exist in a
 more primitive form in Africa. Rabbits do not exist in Africa, but
 they are simi lar to the hare who is the most prominent figure in the
 tales. (Werner, p. 925)
 The tortoise is the next most favorite character in the
 folktales and in some ways is more successful in triumphing over
 his enemies than the hare. Among the Baronga, frogs rival tilehare.
 Africa is rich in folklore. Hundreds of thousands of stories
 have been collected. They have a distinctive flavor of their own,
 yet have much in common with folklore of Europe and Asia. The
 characters Africans love, such as the animal trickster, infant prodigy,
 slow thinking ogres are also common to a great part of folkiore
 everYWhere. One of Africa's distinctive features is the realism and
 lack of sentimentality. Other features occurring constantly are
 the cautionary themes, explanatory themes, dilemma situations in
 which the hero has to choose between two agonizing alternatives and
 the audience participation. In Africa there are two basic types of
 stories: those to entertain and those to present a moral. The
 surprising aspect is that there is as much uniformity as there is
 considering the lack of written records. (Johnston, pp. 40 - 41)
 Much of African folklore is inspired by their identification
 with the underdog. (Werner, p. 304) The idea that Africa is a
 continent without history, poetry or mythology is completely
 false. (Werner, p. 322)
Aarne's, Antti, Th~_!¥£~~~~~E~_!~lktale, A Classification
 and Bibli~q~~p'~, Translated and enlarged by Stith Thompson,
 Helsinki, 1964, Second revision.
 Arnott, Kathle~n, Af~ican Myths and Legends, Henry Z. Walek, Inc.,
 New YorK; 1963.
 Carpenter, Frances, African Wonder Tales, Doubleday and Co.,
 Garden City, New York, 1963.
 Evans-Pritchard, E. E., The Zande Trick~ter, The Clarendon Press,
 Oxford, 1967.
 Finnegan, Ruth, Limba Stories and Story Tellin~, The Clarendon
 Press, Oxford, 1967.---
 Fuchs, Peter, African Decameron - Folktales from Central Africa,
 Transl~ted b-Y Robe:rt Meister, Ivan Obolensky, Inc., New
 York, 1963.
 Guillot, Rene, Guillot's African Folk Tales, Selected and translated
 by Gwen Marsh, Franklin ~'latts,Inc., New York, 1966.
 Herskovits, Melville J. and Frances S., Dahomean Narrative,
 Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1958.
 Herskovits, Melville J., "Negro Folklore", in Cultures and
 Societies of Africa, simon and Phoebe Ottenberg editors,
 Random House, New York, 1960.
 Horner, in The Anthroeologist Looks at Myth, Melville Jacobs and
 John Greenway ed1tors, University of Texas Press. Austin,
 1966, pp. 145 - 156.
 Hoyt, A. H., Bantu Folklore Tales, Day's Print Shop, Wichita,
 Kansas, 1951-.----
 Jacobs, Melville, the Foreward in The Anthropologist Looks at
 Mtth, Melville Jacobs and John Greenway editors, University
 o Texas Press, Austin, L966.
 Johnston, H. A. S., A Selection of Hausa Stories, The Clarendon
 Press, Oxford. I966~
 Junod, H. A., The Life of a South African Tribe, university
 Books, InC::-New-Hyde Park, New York, 1962.
 Krappe, Alexander H., The Science of Folklore, Barnes and Noble,
 Inc., New York, 1929~
Ottenberg, Phoebe, "The Afikpo Ibo of Eastern Nigeria" ;n Peoples
 of Africa, 0ames L. Gibbs, Jr. editor, Holt, Rinehart and winston
 Inc., Ne~ York, 1965.
 Walker, Barbara K. and Warren S., editors, Nigerian Folk Tales,
 Rutgers University press, New BrunSWick, New Jersey, 1961.
 Werner, Alice, ~th~ a~~~~ends of the Bantu, Frank Cass and
 Company Ltd., London, 1968.
 Winick, Charles, Dictionary of AnthroEo~o9YI Littlefield, Adams,
 Totowa, New Jersey-~-I9-6ff.